Noun

Noun Clauses

A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase.

A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:

         ·         A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:

What Billy did shocked his friends.

         ·         A noun clause can be an object of a verb:

         Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

         ·         A noun clause can be a subject complement:

         Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

         ·         A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:

         Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.

         ·         A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:

         Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:

         ·         To change a statement to a noun clause use that:

I know + Billy made a mistake = I know that Billy made a mistake.

         ·         To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:

George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? = George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.

         ·         To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:

I don’t know + Where is George? = I don’t know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun clause markers:

- That

- if

- whether

Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why

Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever

D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.

not correct:

* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

 

E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:

not correct:

* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)

correct:

Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)

not correct:

* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)

correct:

Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)

 

F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:

          ·         Future if its action/state is later

He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.

He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.

          ·         Present if its action/state is at the same time

He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.

          ·         Past if its action/state is earlier

He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:

          ·         Was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later

He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.

He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.

          ·         Past if its action/state is at the same time

He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.

          ·         Past perfect if its action/state is earlier

He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.

If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.

The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.

If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.

We learned that English is not easy.

            The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:

         ·         Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:

That George learned how to swim is a miracle.

Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.  

         ·         Noun clauses as objects of verbs:

We didn’t know that Billy would jump.

We didn’t know Billy would jump.

         ·         Noun clauses as subject complements:

The truth is that Billy was not very smart.

The truth is Billy was not very smart.

         ·         Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:

Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.

He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.

         ·         Noun clauses as adjective complements:

He is happy that he is learning English.

            We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

Exercise

1.    The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.
2.    He said that he would not go.
3.    That he is not interested in the offer is known to us.
4.    He said that he was not feeling well.
5.    I cannot rely on what he says.
6.    I don’t know where he has gone.
7.    He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes.
8.    The news that he is alive has been confirmed.
9.    The belief that the soul is immortal is almost universal.
10.    It is certain that we will have to admit defeat.
11.    It was fortunate that he was present.
12.    The report that only ten persons were killed in the riots is not true.

Answers

1.    Here the noun clause ‘that the traitor should be put to death’ is that object of the verb ordered.
2.    Here the noun clause ‘that he would not go’ is the object of the verb said.
3.    Here the noun clause ‘that he is not interested in the offer’ is the subject of the verb is.
4.    Here the noun clause ‘that he was not feeling well’ is the object of the verb said.
5.    Here the noun clause ‘what he says’ is the object of the preposition on.
6.    Here the noun clause ‘where he has gone’ is the object of the verb know.
7.    Here the noun clause ‘whether the servant had polished his shoes’ is the object of the verb asked.
8.    Here the noun clause ‘that he is alive’ is in apposition to the noun news.
9.    Here the noun clause ‘that the soul is immortal’ is in apposition to the noun belief.
10.   Here the noun clause ‘that we will have to admit defeat’ is in apposition to the pronoun it.
11.   Here the noun clause ‘that he was present’ is in apposition to the pronoun it.

12.Here the noun clause ‘that only ten persons were killed in the riots’ is in apposition to the noun repot. 

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Conjunctions

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases or sentences and etc.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions	Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so	although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

 Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

• Single Word
  for example: and, but, because, although
• Compound (often ending with as or that)
  for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
• Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
  for example: so...that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
  - Jack and Jill went up the hill.
  - The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
• Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
  - I went swimming although it was cold.

Position

• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
• Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

In this lesson we will look in more detail at:

• Coordinating Conjunctions
• Subordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:

• I like [tea] and [coffee].
• [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:

• I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

• She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.
• He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

Subordinating Conjunctions

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are:

• after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while 

A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible: 

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.

Exercises

1.      Things were different _____ I was young.

2.      I do it _____ I like it.

3.      Let us wait here _____ the rain stops.

4.      You cannot be a lawyer  _____ you have a law degree.

5.      That was years _____ years ago.

6.      She has not called _____ she left last week.

7.      I saw him leaving an hour _____ two ago.

8.      This is an expensive _____ very useful book.

9.      We were getting tired _____ we stopped for a rest.

   10.   He was angry _____ he heard when happened.

Answers

1.      Things were different when I was young.

2.      I do it because I like it.

3.      Let us wait here until the rain stops.

4.      You cannot be a lawyer unless you have a law degree.

5.      That was years and years ago.

6.      She has not called since she left last week.

7.      I saw him leaving an hour or two ago.

8.      This is an expensive but very useful book.

9.      We were getting tired so we stopped for a rest.

   10.   He was angry when he heard when happened

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